Phylloxera crisis in Cognac: how the vineyard survived

Looking at the rows of vines that shape the landscapes of Cognac and the Charente today, it is hard to imagine that they once almost disappeared.

And yet, at the end of the 19th century, the Cognac vineyard went through one of the most serious crises in its history.

A tiny insect attacked the vines, gradually destroyed the harvests and plunged an entire region into a deep agricultural, economic and social crisis.

Its name: phylloxera.

First seen in the Charente in 1868, the parasite spread rapidly through the vineyard. Within a few years, thousands of hectares were affected and wine production collapsed.

But this catastrophe also brought about a profound transformation of Charentais winegrowing.

From the arrival of phylloxera to the rebuilding of the vineyards, this is a look back at a decisive period in the history of Cognac: that of a vineyard that nearly disappeared before managing to be reborn.

What is grape phylloxera?

Phylloxera is a parasitic insect of the vine whose appearance in Europe deeply upset winegrowing in the 19th century.

Native to North America, it was reported in France in the 1860s. Its spread quickly became a threat to vineyards.

The danger is all the greater because an essential part of its action takes place underground.

Phylloxera attacks the roots. The vines gradually lose their vigour, yields fall and the plants eventually die.

On top of this comes a remarkable ability to spread.

By the time symptoms become clearly visible in a plot, the parasite may already have begun to reach neighbouring vineyards.

In the Charente, where the vine then held an essential place in the local economy, its arrival was to have considerable consequences.

1868: phylloxera appears in the Charente

The story of the phylloxera crisis in Cognac truly begins in 1868.

The first Charentais outbreaks were reported in the canton of Pons, notably in the commune of Le Montils.

The parasite then continued its advance.

In 1870, it crossed the Charente river and attacked the plantations of Chérac.

Then the Cognac vineyard itself was hit.

In 1871, phylloxera reached the Cognac area via Merpins and Crouin. The insect then attacked the 280,000 hectares of the Charentais vineyard.

From then on, its spread became extremely difficult to contain.

Phylloxera spreads through the Cognac vineyard

Between 1868 and 1874, phylloxera gradually gained ground in the Charente. The year 1874 marked the “great invasion”.

Winegrowers watched, often powerless, as their plots withered.

In 1877, drought and heat once again favoured the spread of the disease: eight of the eleven districts of the two Charente départements suffered significant damage. The Saintes district was the worst affected, with 7,600 hectares in 1877 and 8,300 in 1881, or 20% of the planted area.

As early as 1876, half of the plantations in the canton of Pons were out of production, against 29% in the canton of Burie and 15% at Gémozac. In 1879, of the 161,000 hectares of vines in Charente-Maritime, only 14,000 were still intact and 29,000 were being uprooted.

In less than a decade, what had looked like a localised threat turned into a genuine catastrophe for the Charentais vineyard.

Wine production collapses

The crisis was all the more brutal because it came after a period of particularly large production.

In 1875, the Charentais harvest reached 14.1 million hectolitres of wine.

But this abundance was short-lived.

In the following years, production began to decline. In 1877, the last harvest still considered abundant reached about 8.5 million hectolitres. In 1879, the harvest fell below 2 million hectolitres, and average yields, which had been 30 to 45 hectolitres per hectare, dropped to just 4 to 9.

Then the situation continued to deteriorate.

The vines produced less, yields collapsed and the raw material available for distillation became scarce.

The phylloxera crisis then became far more than a winegrowing problem: it directly threatened the Cognac economy.

When a vineyard crisis becomes a Cognac crisis

At the end of the 19th century, the eau-de-vie trade supported an entire region.

Winegrowers were of course the first to be hit by the destruction of the vines, but the crisis gradually reached the whole industry.

Distillers, merchants, coopers, workers and carriers also depended on the prosperity of the vineyard.

As harvests shrank, the volumes available for distillation shrank in turn.

The stocks of eaux-de-vie built up in previous years cushioned the blow for a while. The trade, which in any case preferred the far better eaux-de-vie of earlier years, drew on its reserves and gradually put them back on the market to keep meeting demand. The English, who had increased their Cognac reserves tenfold between 1865 and 1880, also managed for a time to hold back price rises.

But stocks obviously cannot replace a producing vineyard in the long term. In 1886-1887, when the shortage was confirmed, prices soared: Grande Champagne eau-de-vie exceeded 750 francs per hectolitre, against 180 francs in 1879. Eaux-de-vie from before phylloxera, made exceptional by their great age, even acquired considerable value.

The phylloxera crisis in Cognac thus became a major economic crisis.

A human and social catastrophe as well

Behind the production figures and the hectares of destroyed vines lay another reality: that of the families who lived off the land.

The loss of part of the winegrowing income deeply upset the Charentais countryside.

Some owners abandoned their land. Investment became harder and the rural exodus increased.

Several areas then saw a sharp fall in population.

Between 1876 and 1891, the canton of Segonzac, in the heart of Grande Champagne, lost 3,066 inhabitants, and that of La Jarrie, on the Aunis plateau, 2,261.

Some winegrowing communes were particularly hard hit: those of the Champagne de Segonzac lost 20 to 30% of their population.

The crisis thus transformed the human landscape of the Charente as much as its agricultural one.

Abandoned vineyard land and a changing agriculture

The gradual disappearance of the vine also freed up a great deal of land.

Some plots were abandoned while others changed use.

In several areas, the crisis encouraged the development of other crops and of livestock farming.

At the same time, the fall in the value of some land attracted new residents. At Touzac, in Grande Champagne, vineyard land was sold at 750 francs per hectare instead of 6,000. People from Poitou and Limousin in particular settled in the Charentais countryside and took over some farms.

Phylloxera therefore brought about a genuine reshaping of the territory.

The old vineyard did not disappear everywhere in the same way, but the agricultural balance that existed before the crisis was deeply disrupted.

How did winegrowers try to fight phylloxera?

Faced with the parasite’s advance, the priority was of course to save the vines.

A long period of experimentation began. In 1874, the Cognac trade, under the presidency of Edouard Martell, founded a Viticulture Committee and funded the opening of a viticulture station.

Winegrowers and specialists tested different techniques to try to contain phylloxera.

Soil treatments were tried. Carbon disulphide, used from 1878, was among the means employed in some plots.

But these methods had significant limits.

They were expensive, difficult to apply on a large scale and not a sufficient answer for durably rebuilding the thousands of affected hectares.

For nearly two decades, the fight against phylloxera therefore remained extremely difficult.

The solution would gradually come from another path.

American vines, a decisive lead

The paradox of the phylloxera crisis is striking: North America, where the parasite came from, was also to play an essential role in saving European vineyards.

Experiments were carried out with American vines, some of which showed better resistance to phylloxera.

In the Charente, different plants were tested to identify those that could adapt to the soils. From 1882-1883, reconstitution with American grape varieties and rootstocks began with Riparia, Rupestris and Jacquez.

This research gradually contributed to the emergence of a new way of growing vines.

The principle is to use a root system able to resist phylloxera better and to graft onto it the above-ground part of the vine that produces the desired grapes.

Phylloxera-resistant rootstocks thus became one of the keys to the vineyard’s rebirth.

Which grape varieties to replant? Grafting changes everything

Saving the vine is not only a matter of choosing a rootstock: you also have to decide which grape varieties to plant on it, because they are what give the wine destined for distillation. The first trials showed how delicate the choice of grape varieties is. Planted as they were, American varieties resisted phylloxera, but their high yields and the poor ripeness of their grapes gave wines with a strange taste, disappointing for making eaux-de-vie. These plant transfers also brought new diseases, such as downy mildew and black rot.

Grafting offered a way out: it made it possible to keep French varieties by combining them with an American root system. One obstacle specific to the Charente remained: the high active-lime content of the soils caused chlorosis in many plants, which made it necessary to look for rootstocks suited to chalky subsoils. This search mobilised researchers from all over France: Millardet, in Bordeaux, made numerous crosses between 1880 and 1885, while Pierre Viala was sent to the United States. Near Denison, in Texas, he found land similar to that of the Charente, populated by wild vines able to resist.

This period also marked a turning point in grape variety planting. Long the majority variety in the Charente, Folle Blanche, fragile and susceptible to disease, declined after the crisis in favour of the hardier Ugni Blanc. According to the BNIC, Ugni Blanc is now found in more than 98% of Cognac vines, while Folle Blanche accounts for less than 1% of vines planted.

Rebuilding the Cognac vineyard

Finding a solution was not enough, however.

After years of destruction, the Cognac vineyard now had to be rebuilt.

The task was immense.

It was necessary to select plants, develop nurseries, produce grafts, determine the rootstocks best suited to the different soils and above all convince winegrowers to replant. In 1888, Ravaz, a former pupil of Viala, was chosen to rebuild the Charentais vineyard, and J.M. Guillon succeeded him in 1897.

The rebuilding happened gradually.

The merchant houses also took part in this replanting effort.

During the winter of 1897-1898, for example, the house of James Hennessy distributed 32,900 grafted plants free of charge in various communes of the canton of Segonzac to help rebuild the vineyard. From 1898, lectures organised in the cantons of the Cognac district gave information on grafting, pruning, treatment and manuring of the vine.

These initiatives show how much was at stake.

Without vines, there can be no wine to distil. And without wine to distil, the whole Cognac economy is threatened.

Not all terroirs reacted in the same way

Reconstitution did not proceed at the same pace everywhere. Clay and damp soils, flooded in winter, slowed the development of phylloxera, while the better-drained limestone plateaus were devastated. In the Borderies, Hennessy at La Billarderie and Martell at Chanteloup were experimenting with American varieties from 1879. South of Cognac, by contrast, the chalky Champagne, a victim of chlorosis, was only rebuilt late, around 1895, and replanting there remained very localised.

The history of the Cognac vineyard is thus written cru by cru.

1890-1910: the rebirth of the Charentais vineyard

From the 1890s, the crisis gradually entered a new phase.

After destruction came the time for rebuilding.

New plantings multiplied and the vineyard slowly began to win back some abandoned land.

This rebirth nevertheless took time.

Nearly twenty years of struggle, experimentation and planting were needed to allow a new vineyard to emerge.

At the beginning of the 20th century, vineyards were again well established across a large part of the Charente. They remained limited, however: between 1880 and 1905, the planted area fell from 280,000 to 62,000 hectares, and the replanting effort was concentrated in the central Charente.

But the vineyard that was reborn was no longer exactly the one from before the catastrophe.

Practices had changed.

The plant material had evolved.

Grafting had taken on a new importance.

And a whole generation of winegrowers had had to learn to rebuild differently.

Key dates of the phylloxera crisis in Cognac

1868: the first outbreaks appear in the Charente: Phylloxera is reported in the canton of Pons, notably in the commune of Le Montils.
1870: the parasite advances towards the Charente river: The plantations of Chérac are affected.
1871: the Cognac vineyard is hit: Phylloxera reaches the Cognac area via Merpins and Crouin.
1874: the great invasion: The contagion spreads to Lower and Upper Saintonge. The Cognac trade founds a Viticulture Committee.
1875: one last exceptional harvest: The Charentais harvest reaches 14.1 million hectolitres.
1877: destruction becomes considerable: Drought and heat favour the disease: eight districts out of eleven are badly hit. The Saintes district has 7,600 hectares affected.
1880s: experiments multiply: Treatments, plant trials and the search for solutions mobilise the vineyard. In 1888, Ravaz is chosen to rebuild the Charentais vineyard.
From the 1890s: reconstitution begins: The vineyard gradually enters a phase of rebuilding.
1897-1898: thousands of plants are distributed: 32,900 grafted plants are distributed in various communes of the canton of Segonzac, among others.
1906-1910: the new vineyard takes shape: Replanting gradually redraws the Charentais winegrowing landscape.

Why is the phylloxera crisis so important in the history of Cognac?

Because it is much more than a dramatic parenthesis.

The crisis marks a real break between two periods in the history of the Cognac vineyard.

Before phylloxera, Charentais winegrowing rested on a vineyard that had developed over generations.

After phylloxera, it had to be rebuilt.

This reconstruction brought new winegrowing practices, an evolution of the plant material and a transformation of some territories.

It also recalls a fundamental reality: before being an eau-de-vie, Cognac is the fruit of a vineyard. One more reason to go back to basics: understanding what Cognac is.

No grapes, no wine.

No wine, no distillation.

And without winegrowers able to preserve and renew their vines, the whole production chain is weakened.

Has phylloxera disappeared today?

The great phylloxera crisis belongs to history, but phylloxera should not be regarded as a simple enemy that vanished at the end of the 19th century.

The answer to the crisis consisted above all in changing the way vines are grown, notably through the use of resistant rootstocks.

It is probably one of the most fascinating legacies of this period: the catastrophe was overcome not by returning to the vineyard of before, but by building a new winegrowing model.

From the phylloxera crisis to the rebirth of Cognac

At the end of the 19th century, everything could have come to an end.

The vines were dying.

Harvests collapsed.

Land was abandoned.

Families left the countryside.

And an entire economy built around the vine and eaux-de-vie wavered.

Yet the vineyard was reborn.

It took experimenting, grafting, replanting and waiting. It also took passing on new methods and gradually rebuilding what phylloxera had destroyed.

This rebirth is now one of the major episodes in the history of Cognac.

When we look at the Charentais vines of today, their apparent permanence can make us forget this break.

Yet behind these landscapes lies a story of prosperity, catastrophe, adaptation and transmission.

That of a vineyard that nearly disappeared before being reborn on new roots.

FAQ: phylloxera and the Cognac vineyard

When did phylloxera arrive in Cognac?

The first known outbreaks in the Charente appeared in 1868, in the canton of Pons. After advancing towards Chérac, phylloxera reached the Cognac vineyard via Merpins and Crouin in 1871.

What damage did phylloxera cause in the Charente?

The damage quickly became considerable. In 1879, of the 161,000 hectares of vines in Charente-Maritime, only 14,000 were still intact and 29,000 were being uprooted. Between 1880 and 1905, the planted area in the Charente fell from 280,000 to 62,000 hectares.

How does phylloxera destroy the vine?

Phylloxera is a parasitic insect that attacks, among other things, the vine’s root system. The plants gradually weaken, their production falls and affected vines can eventually die.

How was the Cognac vineyard saved from phylloxera?

After many experiments, the use of resistant vines and the development of grafting French varieties onto suitable rootstocks gradually made it possible to rebuild the vineyard.

When was the Cognac vineyard replanted?

Reconstitution really gathered pace from the 1890s and continued into the early 20th century. It took several decades to go from the destruction of the vineyard to its rebuilding.

Did phylloxera only affect winegrowers?

No. The destruction of the vineyard had much wider economic and social consequences. The fall in production affected the whole economy linked to eaux-de-vie and also contributed to the rural exodus and the transformation of Charentais agriculture.

To go further

The history of Cognac: follow the thread of the major stages.

The vineyard today: the landscapes and vines shaped by the crisis.

Cognac grape varieties: how what is planted is chosen.

How is Cognac made?: from wine to eau-de-vie, distillation.

Our family story: the key dates of the house.

Sources and references

BERNARD, Gilles, Le Cognac dans la tourmente du phylloxéra : 1868-1910, Groupe de Recherches et d’Études Historiques de la Charente Saintongeaise (G.R.E.H.), Segonzac, December 2006. Gilles Bernard holds a doctorate in arts in geography and is president of the GREH.

The study draws in particular on the Archives de France, the departmental archives of Angoulême, Niort and La Rochelle, the private archives of merchant houses, the newspapers and specialist journals of the time, and various historical publications on Cognac, phylloxera and Charentais agriculture.